This
interview is given on the occasion of an
invitation from Prof. Jafar Mehrad to visit the Islamic
World Science Citation Center (ISC)
and the Regional
Information Center for Science and Technology (RICeST) in Shiraz
(Iran)
from September 30 to October 5, 2014 and to give a number of lectures
on the
information concept and on information ethics. For further information
see here. This interview was
published in Webology,
11, 2, 2014.
How do you define Ethics?
Ethics is a philosophical
discipline dealing with a critical analysis of customs (mores)
and rules
of human behaviour. The Greek term philosophia ethiké
was coined in the
Western tradition by Aristotle. In his Nichomachean Ethics he
makes a
difference between ethos or the character of a person and philosophia
ethiké as the reflection upon it. Aristotle
divided 'practical
philosophy' (philosophia praktiké) into three
sub-disciplines dealing with
the formation of the individual character (ethiké), the
issues of administration of the
family or house (oikos) (oikos, oikonomiké) and
the
political issues
(politiké) corresponding to the subdivision of society in
ancient
Greece.
Ethics
has a long and complex
history that includes the translation and commentaries of Aristotle's
works
into Arabic and Persian in the Middle Ages. See my research paper Apud
Arabes. Notes on the Greek, Latin, Arabic and Persian Roots of the
Concept of
Information (2014) for further details.
In
its present understanding,
Ethics deals with issues of values, customs and rules of fair
play in today's
society as well as in other epochs and cultures. Due to the complexity
of the
issues in areas such as biology, business, medicine and media, ethical
reflection is subdivided into, for instance, bioethics, business
ethics,
medical ethics and media or information ethics depending on whether
media
ethics is supposed to deal with mass media and information ethics with
Internet
issues. A further sub-division is appropriate when dealing with ethical
issues
of Internet research (Internet research ethics).
It
is important to stress the
difference between ethics as a philosophical discipline and morality as
the
given behavioural rules in a society. This difference between the
reflection
(ethics) and its object (morality) is important due particularly to the
fact
that ethics and morality are often used as synonyms in everyday
language. Since
Modernity, Ethics is conceived as dealing with what we ought to
do while
for the pre-modern Western tradition Ethics deals with different views
of good
life or of what we want to do in order to achieve good
life. Both
traditions are interwoven. The modern utilitarian tradition, for
instance, is
closely related to traditional views of Ethics.
An
important aspect of
today's understanding of Ethics concerns issues of individual and
social
responsibility with regard to the impact of our choices in light of
the influence of science and technology on society as well as on the
environment (ecological ethics). While information and
communication technologies (ICTs) open doors to new technological and
scientific possibilities, they also act as a catalyst to an
unprecedented
encounter with otherness, ensuring through digital mediums the en masse
collision of hitherto closed ethical systems and cultural worldviews.
Such a
collision increases, on one hand, the potential for cultural conflicts,
while
creating, on the other hand, an ungrounded and abyssal reality that
necessitates an existential accountability to ethical commitment apart
from an
adherence to any universal or metaphysical standards, demanding a
pluralism and
a pluralistic foundation to ethics that both understands and accounts
for
difference. It is only through such a foundation that commonalities can
be
found. Ethics
deals not only with the foundation of morality but also
with its problematization. Many issues that arise from science and
technology
cannot be adequately dealt with on the basis of traditional customs and
rules
of fair play alone.
What is the relation
between
Information Ethics and Internet Research Ethics?
Regarding
my understanding of
Information Ethics, allow me to quote from the site of the International
Center Information Ethics (ICIE) of which I am responsible:
1.
Information Ethics as
Applied Ethics
Information
ethics deals with
ethical questions particularly:
- in the
Internet (cyberethics;
information ethics in a narrower sense)
- in
computer science (computer
ethics)
- in the
biological and medical
sciences (bioinformation ethics)
- in the
mass media (media
ethics)
- in the
library and
information science field (library ethics)
- in the
business field
(business information ethics)
2.
Information Ethics as a
Descriptive and Emancipatory Theory
- Information
ethics as a
descriptive theory explores the power structures influencing
informational attitudes and traditions in different cultures and epochs.
- Information
Ethics as an
emancipatory theory develops criticisms of moral attitudes and
traditions in the information field at an individual and collective
level. It includes normative aspects.
Information
ethics explores
and evaluates
- the
development of moral
values in the information field,
- the
creation of new power
structures in the information field,
- information
myths,
- hidden
contradictions and
intentionalities in information theories and practices,
- the
development of ethical
conflicts in the information field.
3.
Ethics for Information
Specialists
Educational
goals:
- to be able
to recognize and
articulate ethical conflicts in the information field,
- to
activate the sense of
responsibility with regard to the consequences of individual and
collective interactions in the information field
- to improve
the qualification
for intercultural dialogue on the basis of the recognition of different
kinds of information cultures and values,
- to provide
basic knowledge
about ethical theories and concepts and about their relevance in
everyday information work.
Regarding
the scope and
relevance of Internet research ethics, I would like to quote from the
article Internet
Research Ethics by
Elizabeth Buchanan and Michael Zimmer in the Stanford Encyclopedia
of
Philosophy .
They write:
"Conceptually
and historically, Internet research ethics is related to computer and
information ethics and includes such ethical issues as data privacy and
confidentiality, integrity of data, intellectual property issues, and
professional standards.
Yet,
as the
Internet has evolved into a more social and communicative tool and
venue, the
ethical issues have shifted from purely data driven to more
human-centered. “On-ground”
or face-to face analogies may not be applicable to online research. For
example, the concept of the public park has been used as a site where
researchers can observe others, but online, the concepts of public and
private
are much more complex. Thus, some scholars suggest that the specificity
of
Internet research ethics calls for new regulatory and/or professional
and
disciplinary guidance."
The
authors analyze the
following ethical issues in Internet research, namely privacy,
recruitment, informed
consent, and cloud computing.
Elizabeth
A. Buchanan and
Annette N. Markham, both members of The Association of Internet
Researchers
(AoIR) together with an AoIR ethics committee have developed guidelines
for Ethical
Decision-Making and Internet Research (2012).
They deal with some "major tensions" concerning human subjects,
public/private,
data(text)/persons, top-down versus bottom-up approaches to ethics.
The
following ethical
questions
are addressed:
"How
is the
context defined and conceptualized?
How is the context
(venue/participants/data) being accessed?
Who is involved in
the study?
What is the
primary object of study?
How are data being
managed, stored, and represented?
How are
texts/persons/data being studied?
How are findings
presented?
What are the
potential harms or risks associated with this study?
What are potential
benefits associated with this study?
How are we
recognizing the autonomy of others and acknowledging that they are of
equal
worth to ourselves and should be treated so?
What particular
issues might arise around the issue of minors or vulnerable persons?"
The
International Journal
of Internet Research Ethics
edited by Elizabeth A. Buchanan, Charles E. Ess and
Annette N. Markham, of which three issues
(2008, 2009 and 2010) are available so far, describe the scope of
Internet
Research Ethics as follows:
"As
Internet
Research Ethics has developed as its own field and discipline,
additional
questions have emerged: How do
diverse methodological approaches
result in distinctive ethical conflicts – and, possibly, distinctive
ethical
resolutions? How do
diverse cultural and legal traditions
shape what are perceived as ethical conflicts and permissible
resolutions? How
do researchers collaborating across diverse ethical and legal domains
recognize
and resolve ethical issues in ways that recognize and incorporate often
markedly different ethical understandings?
Finally, as "the Internet" continues to transform and diffuse, new
research ethics questions arise – e.g., in the areas of blogging,
social
network spaces, etc. Such questions are at the heart of IRE
scholarship, and
such general areas as anonymity, privacy, ownership, authorial ethics,
legal
issues, research ethics principles (justice, beneficence, respect for
persons),
and consent are appropriate areas for consideration."
For
further insight, see the
website of
the Center for
Information Policy Research, University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA) .
It
is apparent that there is
a close relationship between Information Ethics and Internet Research
Ethics particularly
if the field of Information Ethics is focused on issues of the Internet.
What do you
understand by 'research integrity'?
My
understanding of research
integrity aligns fully with the University of Oxford's "Code
of Practice" on "Academic
integrity in research".
I
quote from it:
(1) The
University expects all members of the University including staff and
students
and those who are not members of the University but who are conducting
research on University premises or using University facilities or
funding
for their research, to observe the highest standards of ethics and
integrity in
the conduct of their research. In pursuance of such high
standards they
must:
a)
be honest
in proposing, conducting and reporting research. They should strive to
ensure
the accuracy of research data and results and acknowledge the
contributions of
others.
b) acquaint
themselves with guidance as to best research practice and standards of
integrity; (...) for example, the Code of Practice for Research
published
by the UK Research Integrity Office or the Concordat to Support
Research
Integrity.
c) comply
with ethical and legal obligations as required by statutory and
regulatory
authorities, including seeking ethical review and approval for research
as
appropriate. They should ensure that any research undertaken
complies
with any agreements, terms and conditions relating to the project, and
allows
for proper governance and transparency.
d) seek
to ensure the safety, dignity, wellbeing and rights of those associated
with
the research.
e) effectively
and transparently manage any conflicts of interest, whether actual or
potential,
reporting these to the appropriate authority as necessary.
f) ensure
that they have the necessary skills and training for their field of
research.
g) recognise
their accountability to the University and their peers for the conduct
of their
research.
h) having
due regard to subject disciplinary norms, acknowledge that authorship
of a
research output should be attributed only to a researcher who has made
a
significant intellectual, scholarly or practical contribution to that
output
and is willing to take responsibility for the contribution.
i) follow
the requirements and guidance of any professional bodies in their field
of
research. Researchers who are members of a regulated profession must
follow the
requirements and guidance of the body regulating their profession.
(2)
Failure
to comply with this Code of Practice and Procedure may give rise to an
allegation of Misconduct in Research (as further defined in 3).
Misconduct in
Research may be a ground for disciplinary action[3], and if serious,
for dismissal
or expulsion."
Can
you give some examples of
research misconduct?
I
would like to highlight the
issue of plagiarism, an issue that has become a major problem in German
universities but
also in schools. Some prominent persons such as the former German
Minister of
Defense, Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg, and the former German Minister of
Education and Research, Annette Schavan, resigned as ministers after
the
universities of Bayreuth
and Düsseldorf revoked their doctorates due to plagiarism. See
further
examples here.
How
much do these
examples
differ from other cases in a traditional media environment previous to
the Internet?
In
fact, the example of
Annette Schavan shows that although she wrote her dissertation in 1980
in a traditional media
environment there is no great difference with regard to the misconduct
from
other cases in today's Internet environment. What is different is that,
thanks
to the development of plagiarism software, it has become easier to
unveil such
cases than it was in the past.
What
are the goals of
the International
Center for
Information Ethics?
The International Center
for Information Ethics is an interdisciplinary and
intercultural
world-wide network of colleagues interested in information
ethics. The aim
of the Center is announced on the ICIE website as follows:
"This
is an
academic website on information ethics. It is a platform for exchanging
information about worldwide teaching and research in our field. It
gives the
opportunity to meet each other. It provides news on ongoing activities
by
different kinds of organizations. And it is free. The success of this
website
depends on the will of the people interested in this subject to share
their
knowledge with others."
In
1999, long before the
present online social networks were created, I tried to create an
academic
community in order to better exchange ideas and projects and to
communicate online.
This idea was and is supported by the Center for Art and Media
Karlsruhe
(ZKM) as well as by different
sponsors such as the VolkswagenStiftung that made possible
several
national and international conferences,
particularly the first International
conference on Intercultural Information Ethics
held in Karlsruhe in 2004.
Thanks
to the support of Dr.
Felix Weil (Stuttgart),
we started in 2004 the free online journal International Review of
Information Ethics (IRIE).
In
2001 the ICIE launched a book series
at Fink Verlag (Munich)
consisting to date of five volumes.
The
Center has co-organized
several international conferences and meetings, particularly in Africa,
under the patronage of UNESCO, with the support of the Department
of
Communications of South
Africa, in cooperation with the African
Centre of Excellence for Information Ethics at the Department
of
Information Science of the University of Pretoria, South Africa and the
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA).
What
is the impact of
the
ICIE in the development of Information Ethics? Are there any other
similar
organizations?
I
think that the main impact
has been to make academic research on Information Ethics more visible
and
engaged with different parts of the world, particularly in Africa but
also in
Latin America (Brazil, Mexico) and in the Far East (Japan, China). A
similar
but more formal organization is the Internet Society for Ethics and
IT
(INSEIT). See more here as
well here regarding teaching
of information ethics.
What are the main
topics of
Information Ethics today?
There
are cutting-edge topics
such as transparency, privacy, and secrecy in the post-Snowden era. See
Ethics
of Secrecy.
They are intertwined with issues dealing with big data, the Internet of
things,
and robotics. See Ethics for the
Internet of Things .
These
issues are closely
related to the development of the information and knowledge society
with
different shapes according to cultural settings and political agendas.
The
impact of the internet in developing countries, known as the
'digital divide', is still a major issue particularly concerning the
relevance
of mobile technologies for emerging economies as well as for the
educational
sector. See The
Digital Future of Education .
ICTs
play a major role in
social
and political movements: See
New ICTs and Social Media: Revolution,
Counter-Revolution and Social Change, issues that are
closely interrelated with online social networks: See Ethics of
Online Social Networks.
There
is an ongoing societal change concerning the issue of citizenship, now
an object
of research centred around changing understandings of citizenry as
being
digitally influenced and informed through Internet identities, where
globalization
takes place, in part, online, and where perspectives of nationalism and
state
become intertwined with the Internet as traditional borders are greyed
and
ideas of ‘home’ and ‘space’ are supplanted by the digital realm. See Global
Citizenship.
Eventually,
ethical issues of
cyber warfare will also be a major research topic in information
ethics.
See Cyber Warfare.
What is your advice for those
interested in doing research in the field of Information Ethics?
I would recommend to those interested in the
field to keep their eyes open with
regard to present and future challenges of the digital age. To
cooperate
interdisciplinarily and interculturally with students world-wide in
order to
achieve a common basis for research, acknowledging differences and
looking for
commonalities concerning methodologies and objects of study. To give
each other
the academic and personal recognition everyone deserves. To look back
and
retrieve again and again the rich cultural and philosophical traditions
of
humanity in order not to become obsessed by the present dynamic of
information
technology with its narrow-minded and
shortsightedness share-value oriented perspective.
And, above all, I would recommend to those
interested in the field to look carefully at all kinds of dystopian and
pathological phenomena of the digital age. Such phenomena are often
excluded
from the research focus of the digital global players and their
marketing
departments no less than from academic research institutions due to
defense
mechanisms that prescribe students not to critically assess anything
outside
the official paradigms and agendas of the institution. It is important
as well
for the student of information ethics to understand that the university
institution often wrongly assumes the necessary ethics ‘quotient’
fulfilled
through mandatory intro ethics courses, and as such feels no need for
any
further focus on ethics, neglecting in the process a deeper and
holistic
understanding of ethics in all facets of education, especially
pertaining to
education in a digital age.
There is no single discipline or subject
that is
not in need of a deeper critical ethical reflection, especially
concerning the
pathological phenomena of the digital age. In other words, ethics
concerns us,
all of us. It concerns the kind of human beings we want to be and the
kind of
human beings we want not to be as humanity enters and strives to
navigate the
unchartered waters of the digital age.
Acknowledgement
I
thank Jared Bielby
(University of Alberta, School of Library and Information Studies,
Canada) for corrections, additions, and critical remarks.
Last
update: November 5, 2017